A comparative study on self-compassion among type-A, type-B personality of college students
Lulu Farshana M
In the present study investigates the level of self-compassion in the Type A and Type B personality of college students. The researcher used tool for the study to assess the variable was Type A/B behavioural pattern scale Upinder Dhar and Manisha Jain developed this scale (The scale is used to measure Type A/B behavioural pattern in Indian context) and the Self-compassion scale The SCS is a 26-item self-report scale to measure trait self-compassion that examines six factors representing the positive and negative sides of the three components of self-compassion developed by Neff in 2013. For the present research, the sample was confined from Kerala. The whole sample comprised of 80 college students (18-25 years old) in which 40 college students were considered under type A personality and 40 college students were considered under type B personality after measured their personality by using Type A/B Behavioural pattern scale (ABBPS). Further both group subdivided into 20 male and 20 female college students. The convenient sampling technique was used for the study collection procedure independent‘t’ test and Pearson’s correlation statistical methods were used to analyse the data. The study concluded that there is a significant relationship between type-A, type-B personality and self-compassion..
Keywords: self-compassion, type-A and type-B Personality
Introduction
Self-compassion is a characteristic composed of self-kindness, common humanity and mindfulness that promotes adaptive cognitive, behavioural and emotional processing. Researchers define self-compassion as a trait consisting of three adaptive components; Self-kindness, Common humanity, Mindfulness. And their respective negative counterparts as; Self-criticism, Isolation, Over identification.
The adaptive components foster an unconditional positive regard for the self, especially in times of suffering or failure, while the negative components work to obstruct the action of self-compassion (Neff, 2003). Self-kindness entails and understanding, forgiving attitude towards oneself during failure, rather than a reaction tinged with self-criticism and sharp judgement. Maintaining common humanity involves viewing both negative and positive events as a part of generalised, worldly human experience. People who express common humanity break the cycle of self -absorption and isolation often felt when problem arise and instead begin to embrace a sense of belonging during suffering that validates their emotions and cognitions (Neff 2003). Keeping thought and feeling in a state of balanced, non-judgemental awareness is the core characteristics of mindfulness. Mindfulness undermines over identification with negative emotions and establishes an understanding of the fleeting nature of emotions in general (Reyes, 2012). Largely associated with self-pity, over justification compels individuals to embellish the magnitude of their personal suffering, impeding them from endorsing a more objective perspective of their situation (Neff, 2003).
For self-compassionate people, suffering fully acknowledged, but placed aside to allow for more adaptive functioning in the expression of self-kindness and recognition of human connectedness.
The three elements of self -compassion
1. Self-kindness; When people make a mistake or fail in some way, they are more likely to beat their selves up than put a supportive arm around their own shoulder. Think of all the generous, caring people them know who constantly tear themselves down. Self-kindness counter this tendency so that we are caring ourselves as we are towards others. Rather than being harshly critical when noticing personal shortcomings, supportive and encouraging aim to protect ourselves from harm. Instead of attacking and berating ourselves from being inadequate, then offer ourselves warmth and unconditional acceptance. Similarly, when external life circumstances are challenging and feel too difficult to bear, actively soothe and comfort ourselves.
2. Common humanity; A sense of interconnectedness is central to self-compassion, it’s recognizing that all humans are flawed works in progress, that everyone fails, makes mistakes and experiences hardships in life. Self-compassion honor the unavoidable fact that life entails suffering, for everyone without exception. While this may seem obvious, it is so easy to forget. Then fall into a trap of believing that things are “supposed” to go well and that something has gone wrong when they do not. This is completely normal. However, the people are do not tend to be rational about these matters. Instead not only do suffer, they feel isolated and alone. When remember that the pain is part of shared human experience, every moment of suffering is transformed into a moment of connection with others.
3. Mindfulness; Mindfulness involves being aware of moment-to-moment experience in a clear and balanced manner. It means being open to the reality of the present moment, allowing all thoughts, emotions, and sensation to enter awareness without resistance or avoidance. The mindfulness is an essential component of self-compassion because need to be able to turn toward and acknowledged when the individuals are in a suffering, to be with the pain long enough to respond with care and kindness. Mindfulness counters the tendency to avoid painful thought and emotions, allowing us to truth of our experience, even when it is an unpleasant. To be self-compassionate, mindfulness is actually the first step need to presence of mind to respond in a new way.
Type A personality
The type A behaviour pattern is an observable set of behaviour or style of living organisms characterized by extremes of hostility, competitiveness, hurry, impatience, restlessness, aggressiveness, explosiveness of speech and a high state of alertness accompanied by muscular. People with strong type A behaviour struggle against the pressure of time and the challenges of responsibility (Jenkins 1979). Type A neither an external of this bipolar continuum. The intensity and frequency of type a behaviour increases as societies became more industrialized, competitive and hurried. Type A behaviour is more frequent in urban than rural.
The personality type theory is based on the behavioural pattern portrayed by an individual. Personality type help in a broad classification of people according to their personality trait, attitude, preferences, way of life etc. According to these theories, people are classified type A and type B personality. People belongs to A type personality are workaholic and very rigid in their attitude.
For some 40 years, scientists have been studying Type-A behaviour, a behaviour pattern which may place individual at risk for coronary heart disease. In the mid of 1950’s two cardiologists, Mayer Friedman and RH Rosenman remarked that the primary risk factors for coronary heart disease.
More recent research conducted at Duke University in 1989 has suggested that not all type- A behaviour are unhealthy. Their studies have isolated the following four personality characteristics as being the one most closely associated with heart disease. i.e Hostility, Cynical mistrust of people motive, Frequent anger, open expression of anger.
Although type-A behaviour has been established in the past as a possible risk factor of coronary heart disease, further studies into its makeup and pathological effects have produced inconclusive evidence. Behaviour and psychosocial evidence are demonstrated related to coronary heart disease, which has been coined coronary prone behaviour.
The researchers also suggests that the root of type-A behaviour are insecurity and low self-esteem. In a society that is competitive, insecurity takes root easily. Goals may be unrealistic and expectations overwhelming. The outcome can be low self-esteem. To increase achievement, a person might try to work harder and faster. They may be a sense of free-floating anxiety because of the inability to meet all these expectations.
Type B personality
Type B persons are more relaxed, cooperative, steady in their pace of activity, and appear more satisfied with their daily lives and the people around them. The people of type B tend to be productive under strass it is one of the important characteristic. They were very easy going in nature, relaxed, patience and have lots of self-control. They do not get irritated or anger easily. They are less competitive and their competitiveness is often productive with good intentions. Type B persons do not get hyperactive if their time is wasted and do not mind waiting in a line. They always try to find time for relaxation, enjoyment and fun comes to them very naturally. They spend their free time socializing, shopping, or having good time. They are emotional, express feeling and are not indifferent to wards others. They may also have good social life.
Traits of type B personality
• They are very much relaxed, patient and have lot of self- control.
• These people do not get irritated easily.
• These people do not get angry easily.
• They are less competitive and their competitiveness is often productive with good intentions.
• They rarely tend to be aggressive or frustrated
• They are very flexible in nature who can adapt their selves as per the situation demand.
• Relaxation, fun, enjoyment comes very naturally to them.
• They are having controlled eating and lifestyle habits.
The present study focus on keeping the view as the important role played by personality in one’s life. Sensing the importance of personality in shaping one’s life, the researcher had specially choose personality types as her area of study because it is one of major area where the individual cannot neglect it in their life. From various researchers find out that the personality have an inevitable relationship with different aspects of their life, such as motivation, achievement, satisfaction, emotional balancing, and the health also. In this study researcher try to find out the relationship between the personality types and self-compassion.
As the new generation is going to form the future society, it is must to check their personality types, their relevant thought about their selves and which implies their mental health, and also whether they are emotionally sound or not. So the researcher had chosen college students as subject for the study. In the present problem, strenuous efforts had been made to explore the personality of male and female with reference to the types of personality i. e type A /type with regards of self-compassion. The finding of the study will be of having very importance and utility to the students, teachers and, parents, clinical psychologists, counsellors, therapists, etc. Overall, it will help everyone for the development of the society. The chance get aware about oneself and their environment.
Research design
In the present study investigates the level of self-compassion in the Type A and Type B personality of college students. The present study is an experimental research design were the researcher conducted the test retest of the study. This research is a quantitative analysis where the data are collected by using standardised questionnaires. The main purpose of the study is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights.
Objectives
2. To study and compare male and female college students with regards to self-compassion
3. To study the interaction effect between Type A and type B personality with regards to self-compassion.
4. To study the interaction effect between the sex of college students with regards to self-compassion.
5. To study and compare personality type A and B of college students with regards various components of self-compassion like self- kindness, common humanity and mindfulness.
6. To study and compare male and female college students with regards of various components of self-compassion like self- kindness, common humanity and mindfulness.
Hypotheses
2. There will be no significant difference between male and female college students concerning self-compassion.
3. There will be no significant relationship between type A and type B personality with regards to self-compassion.
4. There will be no significant relationship between the sex of college students concerning self-compassion.
5. There will be no significant difference between personality type A and B of college students with regards various components of self-compassion like self-kindness, common humanity and mindfulness.
6. There will be no significant difference between male and female college students with regards of various components of self-compassion like self-kindness, common humanity and mindfulness.
Population
For the present research, the sample was confined from Kerala. The whole sample comprised of 80 college students (18-25 years old) in which 40 college students were considered under type A personality and 40 college students were considered under type B personality after measured their personality by using Type A/B Behavioural pattern scale (ABBPS). Further both group subdivided into 20 male and 20 female college students.
Sampling techniques
Convenient sampling technique was adapted for this study.
Size of the sample
Totally 80 samples were taken in that 80 samples 40 were male and 40 were female
Variables
Independent variable: In the present research Type A and Type B personality of college students and their sex are considered as independent variable.
Dependent variable: In the present study, the self-compassion and its components are considered as dependent variable.
Criteria for sample selection
Inclusion criteria
2. All the college students are living in Kerala state only.
3. All the samples were well known about both Malayalam as well as English.
4. The samples age group between 18-25 years old.
Exclusion criteria
2. College students with any mental illness.
3. The samples were below 18 years old.
4. The samples were above 25 years old.
Tools used for the study
|
Si
No |
Tool |
Author |
Year |
|
1 |
Demographic
Factors |
- |
- |
|
2 |
A type
A/B Behavioural pattern Scale |
Upinder
Dhar and Manisha Jain |
2001 |
|
3 |
Self
Compassion Scale |
Kristin
Neff |
2003 |
Data collection procedure
Looking to the objective of the present research the sample of the 80 young adult college students were selected, in which 40 students possess trait of personality type A and rest of 40 possess personality type B. Further both subgroups were again equally subdivided into male and female. Self-compassion is measured by using self-compassion scale. Test were administrated in each group through online.
Statistical analysis used for the study
t- Test and Pearson coefficient of correlation method were used for the study
Data analysis and interpretation
Self-compassion among Type A and Type B personality.
The mean score and standard deviation of self-compassion among type A and type B college students have been discussed in the table.1. The result showed that the Type B, personality (M=85.25, SD =13.012) participants achieved higher mean score than type A personality (M=73 4, SD = 9.377) participants. The mean difference was also statistically significant (t=3.92, df =79, p=0.0004) were the p value less than 0.05. The null hypothesis were rejected and researcher have to accept the alternate hypothesis, there will be a significant relationship between self-compassion and type A type B personality
Table 1 Mean score and SDs of self-compassion of the type A and type B participants.
|
Personality |
Mean |
SD |
N |
t |
df |
p |
Interpretation |
|
Type A |
73.4 |
9.377 |
40 |
3.92 |
78 |
. 0004 |
Significant |
|
Type B |
85.25 |
13.012 |
40 |
3.92 |
78 |
. 0004 |
Significant |
Self-compassion among male and female students
The mean score and standard deviation of self-compassion among male and female students were discussed in the table.2. The male (M=79.4, SD=11.716) participants achieved slightly higher mean score than female (M=79.25, 13.855) participants. The difference was statistically not significant (t = 0.479, df= 79, p=0.312). The p-value is greater than 0.05 that means, there were no significance difference between gender and self-compassion. So accept the null hypothesis.
Table.2 the mean score and SDs of male and female students.
|
Personality |
Mean |
SD |
N |
t |
df |
p |
Interpretation |
|
Type A |
79.4 |
11.716 |
40 |
0.479 |
78 |
. 312 |
Not Significant |
|
Type B |
79.25 |
13.855 |
40 |
0.479 |
78 |
. 312 |
Not Significant |
Personality difference in self -compassion and its components.
The self-compassion and its six components were measured in terms of type A and type B personality attributes of the participants. The mean score, standard deviations and the t-value have been discussed in the table.3. The results indicated that there were significant differences (t = 2.79, df = 78, p = 0.003) in the self -kindness of type B (M = 17.13, SD =1.94) and type A (M =18.13, SD = 1.87). The type A (14.47, SD = 2.01) achieved higher mean score on self-judgement as compared to type B (M=13.31, SD=2.33) which is also statistically significant (t = 2.38, df = 78, p = 0.009).The mean difference of common humanity is also statistically significant (t = 2.93, df = 78, p = 0.002) and the type B (M =14.57, SD= 2.83 ) achieved higher score when compared to the type A (M = 12.80, SD = 2.55).
On the isolation measure of self-compassion, type B (M =12.37, SD = 2.98) achieved higher mean score than type A (M =10.12, SD = 2.17) and the difference was also statistically significant (t = 3.86, df = 78, p = 0.0001). Similarly the type B (M = 15.42, SD = 1.98) also achieved higher score than type A (M = 13.62, SD =2.15) and the difference is statistically significant (t = 3.89, df = 78, p = 0.0001). On the over-identification type A (M = 15.31, SD = 3.16) achieved higher score when compared to type B (M=10.72, SD=2.99) and score is statistically significant (t = 6.67, df = 78, p= 0.00001)
Gender difference in self-compassion and its components
Table. 3 displays the mean, SDs and t value of the scores of self-compassion and its components (self-kindness, self-judgement, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, over identification) have been discussed in terms of gender (male and female) participants on the present study. The result showed that male (M = 17.21, SD = 2.45) participants achieved higher mean score on self-kindness when compare to the female (M = 16.98, SD = 2.71) participants. The difference was statistically non-significant (t=0.398, df = 78, p = 0.34). On the measure of self-judgement, the female (M = 18.25, SD = 2.33) achieved higher score than the male (M = 17.15, SD=2.58) and the difference between thus is statistically significant (t = 2.055, df = 78, p = 0.02). The common humanity as compared to the male (M= 18.94, SD=1.92) is higher than the female (M = 18.03, SD = 2.33) and the difference were statistically Significant (t =2.08, df = 78, p = 0.02).
On the measure of isolation, the result shows that the female (M = 15.94, SD = 2.14) have slightly higher score than male (M = 15.63, SD = 2.14), and the difference were statistically not significant (t = 0.63, df = 78, p =0.265). The measure of mindfulness shows that the male (M =19.15, SD = 1.85) have higher mean score than female (M = 18.03, SD =2.32), the difference between thus score reach the significant level (t = 2.17, df =78, p =0.016). On the measure of over identification implies that female (M = 12.47, SD = 2.35) have slightly higher mean score than the male (M = 12.05, SD = 2.15) participants. The difference were not statistically significant (t = 0.83, df =78, p = 0.204).
|
Self-compassion |
personality |
Mean |
SD |
N |
t |
df |
p |
interpretation |
|
Self-kindness |
Type
A |
17.13 |
1.94 |
40 |
2.79 |
78 |
0.003 |
Significant |
|
Type
B |
18.32 |
1.87 |
40 |
|||||
|
Self-judgement |
Type
A |
14.47 |
2.01 |
40 |
2.38 |
78 |
0.009 |
Significant |
|
Type
B |
13.31 |
2.33 |
40 |
|||||
|
Common
humanity |
Type
A |
12.80 |
2.55 |
40 |
2.93 |
78 |
0.002 |
Significant |
|
Type
B |
14.57 |
2.83 |
40 |
|||||
|
Isolation |
Type
A |
10.12 |
2.17 |
40 |
3.86 |
78 |
0.0001 |
Significant |
|
Type
B |
12.37 |
2.98 |
40 |
|||||
|
Mindfulness |
Type
A |
13.62 |
2.15 |
40 |
3.89 |
78 |
0.0001 |
Significant |
|
Type
B |
15.42 |
1.98 |
40 |
|||||
|
Over
identification |
Type
A |
15.31 |
3.16 |
40 |
6.67 |
78 |
0.00001 |
Significant |
|
Type
B |
10.72 |
2.99 |
40 |
Coefficients of Correlation scores of self-compassion between personality and sex
The Pearson coefficients of correlation were done for the analysis of the relationship between the score of self-compassion among type A and type B personalities. The correlation coefficient of self-compassion among type A and type B (r = -0.1283). The result shows it is a negative correlation, which means that the score of one variable increases the other, will be decrease and vice versa. The score were not significant (p=0.4312) at the level of 0.05 level.
|
Self-compassion |
Gender |
Mean |
SD |
N |
t |
df |
p |
interpretation |
|
Self-kindness |
Male |
17.21 |
2.45 |
40 |
0.398 |
78 |
0.34 |
Non-significant |
|
Female |
16.98 |
2.71 |
40 |
|||||
|
Self-judgement |
Male |
17.15 |
2.58 |
40 |
2.055 |
78 |
0.02 |
significant |
|
Female |
18.25 |
2.33 |
40 |
|||||
|
Common
humanity |
Male |
18.94 |
1.92 |
40 |
2.08 |
78 |
0.02 |
significant |
|
Female |
18.03 |
2.33 |
40 |
|||||
|
Isolation |
Male |
15.63 |
2.14 |
40 |
0.63 |
78 |
0.265 |
Non-significant |
|
Female |
15.94 |
2.22 |
40 |
|||||
|
Mindfulness |
Male |
19.15 |
1.85 |
40 |
2.17 |
78 |
0.016 |
Significant |
|
Female |
18.03 |
2.32 |
40 |
|||||
|
Over
identification |
Male |
12.05 |
2.15 |
40 |
0.83 |
78 |
0.204 |
Non-significant |
|
Female |
12.47 |
2.35 |
40 |
The Pearson correlations were done among male and female score of self-compassion, the result shows that it is a positive correlation (r = 0.3929) which means that the scores of both variable changes in the same direction (One increases the other also increases/ one decreases the other also decreases).the score were lying in the significant region (p = 0.0212) at the level of 0.05 level.
Summary and conclusion
The present study is a comparative analysis of self-compassion among type A and type B college students. After the analysis of result the research some conclusions as follows;
1. The personality type A subjects significantly differ on the scores of self-compassion as compare to personality type B subjects. Personality type B have shown more self-compassion when compared to the personality type A.
2. There is no significant difference on the scores of self-compassion among male and female. Even though on the examination of the mean scores of each can see that the male participants have slightly higher mean score than the female participants in the study.
|
Variable |
Self-compassion |
||
|
r-
value |
p-value |
Interpretation |
|
|
Personality
(type A & type B) |
-0.1283 |
0.4312 |
Not significant |
|
Gender (Male & female) |
0.3929 |
0.0212 |
Significant |
The high mean score associated with type B suggests the superiority type B over type A in high self-compassion. The finding supports that type A are less self-compassionate than type A also consistent with the traits of type A tend to be more critical of themselves and to use more negative self-talk than type B. based on the findings of the study researcher concluded that personality traits have a significant effect on self-compassion among college students. Self-compassion must be improved among the students for their better development self and well-being. The study relevant in many educational areas like policy making and curriculum development, methodology, evaluation, class room, home environment. And also helpful in clinical areas in the personality assessment, diagnosis of personality disorders etc.
Limitations of the study
2. College students are only considered in the sample.
3. Samples were only from Kerala state.
4. Social desirability may occurs in the response.
5. Personal biases may affect the result.
6. Only few variables are studied.
7. Research conduct in online mode, there is no face to face interaction between the researcher and participants.
Suggestions for further research
The present study is conducted specifying the boundaries of the research area into the influence of self-compassion among type-A type-B college students in Kerala. The researcher had faced several limitations to conduct the present study. Hence the researcher suggest a few research areas in which future research must be concentrated.
2. A study on similar nature may be under taken on the subjects belonging to other geographical condition and higher age group.
3. Replication of the study in other states of the country may done so that possible differences in the findings resulted from cultural variation can be known.
4. The same studies can also be conducted with additional independent variable.
5. Studies can be conducted to compare the self-compassion among urban and rural, students from professional and non-professional course, government and private colleges, students from arts and science streams etc.
References
Adams, C. E., & Leary, M. R. (2007). Promoting self-compassionate attitudes toward eating among restrictive and guilty eaters. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26, 1120- 1144.
Allport G.W. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York. Holt.
Bentley, M., Peerenboom, C. A., Hodge, F. W., Passano, E. B., Warren, H. C., & Washburn, M. F. (1929). Instructions in regard to preparation of manuscript. Psychological Bulletin, 26,
Breins, J. G. & Chen, S. (2012). Self-compassion increases achievement motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. DOI: 10.1177/0146167212445599.
Brotman, D. J., Golden, S. H., & Wittstein, I. S. (2007). The cardiovascular toll of stress. Lancet, 370, 1089–1100.57–63. ?
Brown, K. W. & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822-848.
Costa, J. & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2011). Acceptance of pain, self-compassion and psychopathology: Using the chronic pain acceptance questionnaire to identify patients’ subgroups. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 18, 292-302.
Crocker, J. & Canevello, A. (2008). Creating and undermining social support in communal relationships: The role of compassionate and self-image goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 555-575.
Felson, R.B. (1989). Parents and the reflected appraisal process: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 965-971.
Germer, C. K. (2009). The mindful path to self-compassion. New York: Guilford Press. Gilbert, P. (2009). The compassionate mind. London: Constable..
Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 351-374.
Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., & Walach, H. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57, 35-43.
Gunaratana, B. (1982). Mindfulness in plain English. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications. Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York: Guilford Press. Heine,
Hetherington (Vol.Ed.), handbook of child Psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, Personality and Social development. New York: Wiley.
Hofmann, S. G., Grossman, P., & Hinton, D. E. (2011). Loving-kindness and compassion meditation: Potential for psychological interventions. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 1126-1132.
Lather, A.S., Goyal S., and Bhargav D (2000). Security insecurity and self-confidence dimensions of personality of adolescents. Prachi journal of psycho-cultural October, 2000. Vol. 16, No.2 Pages 75-84
Mosig, Y. (2006). Conceptions of the self in Western and Eastern psychology. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 26, 39-50
Myrtek, M. (2001). Meta-analyses of prospective studies on coronary heart disease, Type A personality, and hostility. International Journal of Cardiology, 79, 245–251
Neff, K. D. (2009). Self-Compassion. In M. R. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior (pp. 561-573).
Neff, K. D., & Dahm, K. A. (2017). Self-compassion: What it is, what it does, and how it relates to mindfulness. In B. A. Gaudiano, Major themes in mental health. Mindfulness: Nonclinical applications of mindfulness: Adaptations for school, work, sports, health, and general well-being (p. 495–517)
Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. K. (2012). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the Mindful Self-Compassion Program. Journal of Clinical Psychology. DOI: 10.1002/jclp.21923
Neff, K. D., Kirkpatrick, K. & Rude, S. S. (2007). Self-compassion and its link to adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 139-154
Pillow,D.R., West, S.G. & reich, J.W. (1991). Attributional style in relation to self-esteem and depression: Mediational and interactive models. Journal of Research in personality, 25, 57-69.
Ragland, D. R., & Brand, R. J. (1988). Coronary heart disease mortality in the Western Collaborative Group Study. Follow-up experience of 22 years. American Journal of Epidemiology, 127(3), 462-475.
Rosenman, R. H., Brand, R. J., Sholtz, R. I., & Friedman, M. (1976). Multivariate prediction of coronary heart disease during 8.5 year follow-up in the Western Collaborative Group Study. The American Journal of Cardiology, 37(6), 903-910.
S.H., Lehman, D.R., Markus, H.R., & Kitayama, S. (1999). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard? Psychological Review, 106, 766–794.
Singh, AK. Savita Kumari and Suprashna Kumari (2008). Mental health behavior as a function of behavior pattern and personality factors. Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education 2008, 39 (1):3-7.
Singh, Gaurav and Girijesh Kumar (2008). Impact of type of school on personality traits. Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education 2008, 39 (1):41-44.